____________________________________
Onsite
Power Generation
www.OnsitePowerGeneration.com
What is "Onsite
Power Generation?"
Onsite
power generation, also referred to as "distributed energy,"
"distributed generation,"
or "decentralized energy," is
the opposite of "centralized energy" which is the method used by most
utility companies, that generate power with a "central
power plant." "Onsite
power generation" systems generate the power and energy that a
residential, commercial or industrial customer needs, onsite.
Today's
electric utility industry was "born" in the 1930's, when fossil fuel
prices were cheap, and the cost of wheeling the electricity via transmission
power lines, was also cheap. "Central
power plants"
can sometimes be located hundreds of miles from the load centers, or cities,
where the electricity was needed. These extreme inefficiencies and cheap fossil
fuel prices have added a considerable economic and environmental burden to the
consumers and the planet.
Central
power plants are highly inefficient, averaging only 33% net system
efficiency. This means that the power coming to your home or business -
including the line losses and transmission inefficiencies of moving the power -
has lost 75% to as much as 80% energy it started with at the "central"
power plant. These losses and inefficiencies translate into significantly
increased energy expenses by the residential and commercial consumers.
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Running
on "green fuel" such as Biomethane,
B100 Biodiesel,
Synthesis Gas
or natural gas, our CHP
Systems are the greenest "clean
power generation" systems available.
Our
clean
power generation systems are a superior "micro-grid"
and demand
side management solution for data centers,
hospitals, universities, municipal
utility districts and new real estate
developments/subdivisions seeking "net
zero energy" solutions.
With Natural Gas prices now running well below $3.00/mmbtu, and more
recently in March 2012, below $2.40/mmbtu, our Clean Power Generation plants generate
power for a fuel cost at about $0.03/kWh. With operations &
maintenance added in - we generate power for less than a nickel or
$0.05/kWh - or, anywhere from 50% to 75% less than your
present electric rates.
We
also provide energy independence from the "dirty" power grid with its
high unreliability, black-outs and sky-rocketing electric power
prices.
Our "Integrated" CHP
Systems (Cogeneration
and Trigeneration)
Plants
Have Very High Efficiencies, Low Fuel Costs & Low Emissions
The Effective Heat Rate is Approximately
4100 btu/kW & System Efficiency is 92% Plant
The CHP System
below is Rated at 900 kW and Features:
(2) Natural Gas Engines @ 450 kW each on one Skid with Optional
Selective Catalytic Reduction system that removes Nitrogen
Oxides to "non-detect."
Our CHP Systems
may be the best solution for your company's economic and environmental
sustainability as we "upgrade" natural gas to clean power with our clean
power generation solutions.
Our Emissions
Abatement solutions reduce Nitrogen
Oxides to "non-detect" which means our Trigeneration
energy systems can be installed and
operated in most EPA non-attainment regions!
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About
Us
In affiliation with an energy investment banking
firm and Fortune 250 engineering company, we
are forming a new
Energy Service Company (ESCO) to provide ESCO solutions,
including; demand
side management, energy
efficiency measures and clean power generation solutions for commercial,
industrial and utility clients. Our company will reduce our
client's energy expenses, while increasing their power reliability and reducing or
eliminating their environmental risks and
liabilities. Our company's clean power generation
systems and ESCO solutions will upgrade practically any company's
facilities into a "net
zero energy" solution providing the business with the ability to
operate without connection to the electric grid.
For qualified clients, we will
provide the optimum solutions and services, with little to no expense,
with an Energy
Services Agreement or Power
Purchase Agreement that includes emissions
engineering services and "greenhouse
gas reporting" services, now required for many of our clients.
We
provide energy master planning, engineering, architectural and renewable energy project development services
with expertise in:
Our
work is performed on a strict adherence to "vendor-neutrality." We are
client and project focused and seek to maximize our client's return on their
investment while simultaneously minimizing their operational expenses and
environmental exposure.
For
qualified clients we will design, build, finance, own, operate and
maintain a new:
Carbon
Free Energy
Clean
Power Generation
Cogeneration
Concentrated
Solar Power
EcoGeneration
Organic
Rankine Cycle
Rooftop
PV
Solar
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Waste
Heat Recovery
energy
system, through a Power
Purchase Agreement that guarantees
a minimum 10% reduction in our client's energy expenses.
(NOTE: Engineering and related interim project development
expenses may be at client's expense but will be
refunded at the close of Power
Purchase Agreement or other project financing. Some of our
engineering
and EPC services may be provided by one of our Top-ranked ENR Engineering/EPC
partner companies.)
To receive a preliminary no-obligation review of your energy, engineering or
project plans,
send an introductory email to us at the following email address:
info@OnsitePowerGeneration.com
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What
is Backup Power and a Backup
Power Supply?
If
you live in an area where there has been, or could be impacted with power
blackouts, brownouts, rolling blackouts or intermittent power, you need a backup
power supply!
If
you live or work in an area that has had, or could have; earthquakes,
hurricanes, tornados, forest fires, thunderstorms, snow/ice storms or floods,
you probably need a backup power supply!
The
electric grid provides power at a reliability factor of about 99.97% - however,
if your your home, business, hospital, food/agricultural, restaurant, or other
type of facility is "power critical" or power sensitive , you need a
reliable backup power supply!
A
backup power
supply is comprised of a generator with an automatic transfer switch.
Buying
a generator for standby power can be the first step to regaining control over
protecting your family and possessions from harm. And, using a generator is as
simple as operating any household appliance. After you have selected a
generator, here are a few tips that can help you keep power through the storm.
We
can help you select the right backup
power supply for your business or facility. Call/email us for more
information.
What
is "Cogeneration"?
Did
you know that 10% of our nation's electricity now comes from "cogeneration"
plants?
And
because cogeneration
is so efficient, it saves its customers up to 40% on their energy expenses, and
provides even greater savings to our environment through significant reductions
in fuel usage and much lower greenhouse
gas emissions.
Cogeneration
- also known as “combined
heat and power” (CHP), cogen, district energy, total energy, and
combined cycle, is the simultaneous production of heat (usually in the form of
hot water and/or steam) and power, utilizing one primary fuel such as natural
gas, or a renewable fuel, such as Biomethane,
B100 Biodiesel,
or Synthesis Gas.
Cogeneration
technology is not the latest industry buzz-word being touted as
the solution to our nation's energy woes. Cogeneration
is a proven technology that has been around for over 120 years!
Our
nation's first commercial power plant was a cogeneration
plant that was designed and built by Thomas Edison in 1882 in New York. Our
nation's first commercial power plant was called the "Pearl Street
Station."
What
is "Decentralized Energy"?
Decentralized Energy
generates the power and energy that a residential, commercial, municipal or
industrial customer needs, onsite, for their home or business.
Today's
electric utility industry was "born" in the 1930's, when fossil fuel
prices were cheap, and the cost of wheeling the electricity via transmission
power lines, was also cheap. "Central" power plants could be
located hundreds of miles from the load centers, or cities, where the
electricity was needed. These extreme inefficiencies and cheap fossil fuel
prices have added a considerable economic and environmental burden to the
consumers and the planet.
Centralized
energy is found in the form of electric utility companies that generate power
from "central" power plants. Central power plants are highly
inefficient, averaging only 33% net system efficiency. This means that the
power coming to your home or business - including the line losses and
transmission inefficiencies of moving the power - has lost 75% to as much as 80%
energy it started with at the "central" power plant. These
losses and inefficiencies translate into significantly increased energy expenses
by the residential and commercial consumers.
What is Demand
Side Management?
According
to the Department of Energy, Demand
Side Management or "DSM," refers to those "actions
taken on the customer's side of the meter to change the amount or timing of
energy consumption.
Utility
DSM programs offer a variety of measures that can reduce energy consumption and
consumer energy expenses. Electricity DSM strategies have the goal of maximizing
end-use efficiency to avoid or postpone the construction of new generating
plants." Therefore, Demand
Side Management, is the process of managing the consumption of
energy, generally to optimize available and planned generation resources.
While not every business is a candidate for onsite
power generation, such as an onsite cogeneration
or trigeneration
energy system, however, your company may be a great candidate for other
energy-saving solutions. One of these is Demand
Side Management or "DSM". We help commercial, industrial
and utility clients by providing cost-effective Demand
Side Management solutions.
What
are "Distributed
Energy Resources"?
Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) are small, modular, energy generation and
energy storage systems and technologies that provide electric capacity or
thermal energy (i.e. hot water, chilled water, steam) where and when a
commercial or industrial client requires.
Typically,
Distributed
Energy Resources generate less than 10 MW (megawatts).
Distributed
Energy Resources are
highly flexible and adaptable, and can therefore, be sized
to meet any customer's specific power and energy requirements, at the customers
facility or business.
As
they are flexible and adaptable for nearly any customer's specific requirements,
DER systems can be installed to operate with the local electric grid, or be
designed and installed "grid-free" without connecting to the electric
grid in island or stand-alone mode.
Distributed
Energy Resources' technologies include
those that end America's dependence on foreign oil, and therefore include;
How are Distributed
Energy Resources systems
and technologies used?
Distributed
Energy Resources systems can be used in several ways including
managing/reducing energy expenses and ensuring reliable power by augmenting your current energy services.
Distributed
Energy Resources systems also enable a facility to operate independently
of the electric power grid, whether by choice or out of necessity.
Distributed
Energy Resources improve
a customer's "carbon footprint" by significantly reducing their
greenhouse gas emissions and increasing overall energy efficiency.
Utilities can use
Distributed
Energy Resources technologies to delay, reduce, or even eliminate the need to obtain additional
power generation, transmission, and distribution equipment and infrastructure.
At the same time, DER systems can provide voltage support and enhance local reliability.
Distributed
Energy Resources are
an ideal "demand
side management" solution.
How do I know if Distributed
Energy Resources systems
and technologies are the right choice for my facility?
In today's economy and increasing pressure for businesses to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions, there are several economic and environmental factors
making Distributed
Energy Resources a
serious option and alternative. These include the high prices
of electricity from the electric grid/electric utility company as well as high
natural gas costs from the natural gas utilities. Uncertainties regarding
foreign oil, "peak oil" and the ever-increasing potential for disruptions
in electricity service and oil from foreign oil countries are causing managers
and CEO's of businesses to consider alternatives to traditional energy providers and for new ways to supplement
or augment their present energy situation and present suppliers.
This is particularly crucial where a facility’s energy-producing and electric
grid infrastructure are aging. The performance, cost, and availability of
DER technologies have all been improving steadily over the past several years.
New Distributed
Energy Resources systems
and technologies are significantly more efficient than
even ten years ago. Replacing or upgrading your present energy problems
with Distributed
Energy Resources may pay for itself sooner
than expected.
Energy security
as well as price of energy has never been a greater concern to businesses and
their managers/CEO's and CFO's. Distributed
Energy Resources systems can provide
the requisite power and energy needed for mission-critical loads, reduce hazardous or costly power outages, and
diversify the local energy supply.
What
is an Energy
Master Plan?
Now
that greenhouse
gas reporting is a vital and urgent issue for thousands of business
in the U.S., and as they will now have to report their greenhouse
gas emissions to the EPA. Our Energy
Master Plan format has been updated to include "emissions
abatement" strategies.
Our
energy
master planning services are also focused in a broader focus as well
for our customers interested in sustainable energy solutions for reducing their
carbon footprint, fossil fuel intensity, total energy expenses, potential for
blackouts as well as their overall vulnerabilities to being "tied" to
their specific electric utility. Our energy
master planning services also improve
the air quality and work environment for all of our client's stakeholders
through our focus on triple bottom-line results.
Our
energy
master planning services are not solely
focused on our client's facilities' "demand side" of the energy
equation, but also how our client's energy is acquired and purchased on their
supply side. This understanding that supply and demand side planning is equally
important enabled a holistic review of how CUMC uses and pays for energy and the
impact of these sources on the environment.
Our
energy master
plan begins with a review of our
client's past three years electricity, natural gas, oil, waste and water
expenditures and depending on the final requirements and project scope
authorized by the client, will typically include;
What is an "Energy Services
Company?"
An
Energy Services Company, more commonly referred to as an "ESCO," is a
company that provides/installs and manages a suite of comprehensive energy
solutions for a client company which which reduces the energy expenses and greenhouse
gas emissions for
the client. Many times, the ESCO makes the investment(s) on behalf of the client
company and owns/operates/manages the energy solution for a period of time,
typically 10 years, either through a "Power
Purchase Agreement"
(PPA) or an "Energy
Services Agreement"
(ESA).
The
energy service company business model originated in the 1980's as a result of
energy shortages and energy price spikes, primarily centered around natural gas
and natural gas being deregulated by FERC under FERC Order 436. These companies
primarily focused in the demand
side management
market by making "energy
efficient lighting"
upgrades, replacing old/inefficient lighting with more efficient lighting for
hospitals, schools and office buildings.
Today's
energy service company provides a much broader range of energy services that include onsite
power generation systems such as a cogeneration
or trigeneration
energy systems. Today's ESCO's have identified a unique market opportunity
wherein today's commercial businesses, including municipal/government agencies,
are seeking to reduce or eliminate their greenhouse
gas emissions as
well as reducing their energy expenditures. Therefore, ESCO's are including energy
management/energy engineering designs that integrate energy savings projects to
include; energy conservation/energy efficiency, energy infrastructure outsourcing,
onsite
power generation, demand
side management and energy
supply with risk management.
ESCO's
typically perform an in-depth analysis of the client's facility/facilities
starting out with a review of the client's past three years energy expenses
(natural gas, propane, electricity) and many ESCO's now also include past three
years water, sewer and waste expenses as well. After the review and audit
of of the past three years energy expenses, the ESCO develops an ESCO solution
that installs/owns/operates the optimum energy services solution(s) maintaining the
solution(s)/system(s) to ensure performance and energy savings during the payback
period.
What
is "Trigeneration"?
Trigeneration
is the simultaneous production of three forms of energy - typically, Cooling,
Heating and Power - from only one fuel input. Put another way, our trigeneration
power plants produce three
different types of energy for the price of one.
Trigeneration
energy
systems can reach overall system efficiencies of 86% to
93%. Typical "central" power plants, that do not need the heat
generated from the combustion and power generation process, are only about 33%
efficient.
Trigeneration
Diagram & Description
Trigeneration Power Plants' Have the Highest System Efficiencies and are
About 300 % More Efficient than Typical Central Power Plants
Trigeneration
plants are installed at locations that can benefit from all three forms of
energy. These types of installations that install trigeneration
energy systems are called "onsite power generation" also referred to as
"decentralized energy."
One
of our company's principal's first experience with the design and development of
a trigeneration power plant was the trigeneration
power plant installation at Rice University in 1987 where
our trigeneration
development team started out by conducting a
"cogeneration" feasibility study.
The EPC
contractor that Rice University selected installed the trigeneration
power which included a 4.0 MW
Ruston gas turbine power plant, along with waste heat recovery
boilers and Absorption Chillers.
A "waste heat recovery
boiler" captures the heat from the exhaust of the gas turbine. From
there, the recovered energy was converted to chilled water - originally from (3)
Hitachi Absorption Chillers - 2 were rated at 1,000 tons each, and the third
Hitachi Absorption Chiller was rated at 1,500 tons. The Hitachi Absorption Chillers
were replaced shortly after their installation by the EPC
company. The first trigeneration
plant at Rice University was so successful, they added a second 5.0 MW trigeneration
plant so today, Rice University is now generating about 9.0 MW of
electricity, and also producing the cooling and heating the university needs
from the trigeneration
plant and circulating the trigeneration
energy around its
campus.
Trigeneration Chart
Trigeneration's
"Super-Efficiency" compared
with other competing technologies
As you can see, there is No Competition for Trigeneration!
Our trigeneration power plants are the ideal onsite power
and energy solution for customers that include: Data
Centers, Hospitals, Universities, Airports, Central Plants, Colleges
& Universities, Dairies, Server Farms, District Heating & Cooling
Plants,
Food Processing Plants, Golf/Country
Clubs, Government Buildings, Grocery Stores, Hotels, Manufacturing
Plants,
Nursing Homes, Office
Buildings / Campuses,
Radio Stations, Refrigerated
Warehouses,
Resorts,
Restaurants,
Schools, Server Farms, Shopping Centers, Supermarkets, Television
Stations, Theatres and Military Bases.
At
about 86% to 93% net system efficiency, our trigeneration
power plants are about 300% more efficient at providing energy than your current
electric utility. That's because the typical electric utility's power plants are
only about 33% efficient - they waste 2/3 of the fuel in generating electricity
in the enormous amount of waste heat energy that they exhaust through their
smokestacks.
Trigeneration
is defined as the simultaneous production of three energies: Cooling,
Heating and Power.
Our trigeneration
energy systems use the same amount of fuel
in producing three energies that
would normally only produce just one type of energy. This means our customers
that have our trigeneration
power plants have significantly
lower energy expenses, and a lower carbon footprint.
Waste
Heat Recovery in Cogeneration
and
Trigeneration power and energy
systems
In
most cogeneration and
trigeneration
power and energy systems, the exhaust gas from the electric generation
equipment is ducted to a heat exchanger to recover the thermal energy in the
gas. These heat exchangers are air-to-water heat exchangers, where the exhaust
gas flows over some form of tube and fin heat exchange surface and the heat
from the exhaust gas is transferred to make hot water or steam. The hot water
or steam is then used to provide hot water or steam heating and/or to operate
thermally activated equipment, such as an absorption
chiller for cooling or a desiccant dehumidifer for dehumidification.
Many
of the waste heat recovery
technologies used in building cogeneration and
trigeneration
systems require hot water, some
at moderate pressures of 15 to 150 psig. In the cases where additional steam
or pressurized hot water is needed, it may be necessary to provide
supplemental heat to the exhaust gas with a duct burner.
In
some applications air-to-air heat exchangers can be used. In other instances,
if the emissions from the generation equipment are low enough, such as is with
many of the microturbine technologies, the hot exhaust gases can be mixed with
make-up air and vented directly into the heating system for building heating.
In
the majority of installations, a flapper damper or "diverter" is
employed to vary flow across the heat transfer surfaces of the heat exchanger
to maintain a specific design temperature of the hot water or steam generation
rate.
Typical
Waste Heat Recovery
Installation
In some cogeneration and
trigeneration
designs, the exhaust gases can be used to activate a
thermal wheel or a desiccant dehumidifier. Thermal wheels use the exhaust gas
to heat a wheel with a medium that absorbs the heat and then transfers the
heat when the wheel is rotated into the incoming airflow.
A
professional engineer should be involved in designing and sizing of the Waste
Heat Recovery section. For a proper and economical operation, the design of
the heat recovery section involves consideration of many related factors, such
as the thermal capacity of the exhaust gases, the exhaust flow rate, the
sizing and type of heat exchanger, and the desired parameters over a various
range of operating conditions of the cogeneration
or trigeneration
system — all of which
need to be considered for proper and economical operation.
The
Market and Potential for Waste Heat
Recovery technologies and solutions
There
are more than 500,000 smokestacks in the U.S. that are "wasting" heat,
an untapped resource that can be converted to energy with Waste
Heat Recovery technologies.
About
10% of these 500,000 smokestacks represent
about 75% of the available wasted heat which has a stack
gas exit temperature above 500 degrees F. which could generate approximately
50,000 megawatts of electricity annually and an annual market of over $75 billion in gross
revenues before tax incentives and greenhouse
gas emissions credits.
Waste
Heat Recovery technologies represent the least cost solution which provides
the greatest return on investment, than any other possible green energy
technology or "carbon free energy"
opportunity!
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Power
Purchase Agreement
www.PowerPurchaseAgreement.com
What is a Power
Purchase Agreement?
A Power
Purchase Agreement is a legal
agreement wherein our clients agree to buy either the power (electricity) or the
power and energy (hot water, steam and/or chilled water for air-conditioning) -
or both - directly from us, for a term of 10 to 20 years, where we have
installed, own and operate our solar energy systems.
In
nearly every case, once we have installed our solar energy systems at our
client's facility, we can immediately reduce our (commercial)
client's electricity expenses by 10% over what they were paying for their power
electricity from their electric utility.
The
right Power Purchase Agreement,
solar cogeneration or solar
trigeneration energy solution, may save your company hundreds of thousands,
and possibly millions of dollars over the term of the agreement.
Simultaneously,
having the wrong or poorly drafted PPA can cost your company thousands or
millions of dollars. You wouldn't consult a brain surgeon to treat your
child's broken bone! Selecting the wrong attorneys, law firm or team to
promulgate or re-negotiate your Power Purchase Agreement can leave you
"powerless" and penniless - and still requiring the skills and
expertise of competent and qualified professionals to resolve the situation.
Because
a Power Purchase Agreement
is at the "heart" and underlying foundation of our projects, we can
help your business with the selection and oversight of PPA's.
We
can help your city or community create a Municipal
Utility District or Public
Utility District that may then qualify for our very competitively priced
energy and electricity rates. Now is the time for cities, municipal and
governmental clients to consider having our company install one of our renewable
power and energy systems that will generate "clean" power and energy,
lower costs, and avoid the coming electricity shortages and grid congestion
problems!
Products
and services provided by us include the following power and energy project
development services:
-
Project
Engineering Feasibility & Economic Analysis Studies
-
Engineering,
Procurement and Construction
-
Environmental
Engineering & Permitting
-
Project
Funding & Financing Options; including Equity Investment, Debt
Financing, Lease and Municipal Lease
-
Shared/Guaranteed
Savings Program with No Capital Investment from Qualified Clients
-
Project
Commissioning
-
3rd
Party Ownership and Project Development
-
Long-term
Service Agreements
-
Operations
& Maintenance
-
Green
Tag (Renewable Energy Credit, Carbon Dioxide Credits, Emission Reduction
Credits) Brokerage Services; Application and Permitting
A
simple cycle power plant, also called
an open cycle, is comprised of a gas turbine package comprised of a compressor,
combustor, power turbine, and generator, as shown in the figure
"Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine".
In a gas turbine, large volumes of air are compressed to high pressure in a
multistage compressor for distribution to one or more combustion gases from the
combustion chambers power an axial turbine that drives the compressor and the
generator before exhausting to atmosphere. In this way, the combustion gases in
a gas turbine power the turbine directly, rather than requiring heat transfer to
a water/steam cycle to power a steam turbine, as in the steam plant. The latest
gas turbine designs use turbine inlet temperatures of 1,500C (2,730F) and
compression ratios as high as 30:1 (for aeroderivatives) giving thermal
efficiencies of 35 percent or more for a simple-cycle gas turbine.
What
is the Graz Cycle?
The
Graz Cycle
is the only thermodynamic combustion cycle that allows for the retention and
capture of carbon
dioxide emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.
The
Graz Cycle
burns fossil fuel along with pure oxygen thereby enabling for the
cost-effective separation of the carbon
dioxide emissions from the combustion
process through condensation. The additional expense for supplying the oxygen
for the combustion process - and requirements for an air separation unit, are
compensated, in part, through the increase in cycle efficiencies that exceed
65%. The combined efficiency of the Graz
Cycle equals of exceeds the
thermodynamic performance of other serious contenders in Carbon
Capture and Sequestration (CCS).
The
Graz Cycle
is the thermodynamic cycle that provides for a "zero emission power
plant" which also has the highest available efficiencies using gas
turbines. The Graz
Cycle has also been heralded as a "zero emission" power
plant.
In
practice, net electrical cycle efficiencies for Graz
Cycle power plants have exceeded 65% -
which is far higher than typical of state-of-the-art combined cycle plants.
According
to the DOE web site, the Graz
Cycle consists of a high temperature Brayton
cycle and a low temperature Rankine
cycle with a Heat
Recovery Steam Generator. The Graz
Cycle is an oxy-fuel power cycle with the capability of retaining all
the combustion generated CO2 for further use. Its cycle configuration aims at
highest efficiency by reducing the heat extraction in the condenser to a
minimum. A thermodynamic investigation of the Graz
Cycle fired with natural gas (CH4) shows a net efficiency of 52.5%,
if the efforts for oxygen supply and CO2 compression to liquefaction are
considered. If synthesis
gas can be used from an external synthesis
gas plant at 500°C, efficiencies can rise up to 56%. Studies
indicate that further efficiency improvements and simplification of the cycle
are possible.
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How
To Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
You
can easily and affordably reduce or eliminate your company's "carbon
footprint."
Are
you ready for these new "greenhouse
gas reporting"
regulations? We can help you get ready!
Every
day, leading companies are spending millions of dollars going "GREEN"
and reducing their Greenhouse
Gas Emissions.
The
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Market Potential is staggering! According to a recent New York Times
article, carbon trading is one of the “fastest-growing specialties in
financial services.”
Already,
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Trading and International
Carbon Trading markets are worth in excess of $50 billion/year. The United
Nations expects this market to be valued in excess of $2 Trillion/year by 2012
and others are saying this could easily exceed $5 Trillion/year within the next
several years!
DO
THE MATH on the Carbon Dioxide
Emissions market!
You
may be wondering, how can such a relatively new commodity grow so rapidly?
Here in the USA, 40 billion tons of Carbon
Dioxide Emissions are produced every year. At the present price of $50 per
ton of carbon dioxide, the Carbon
Dioxide Emissions market is valued at $2.0 Trillion (40 billion tons of Carbon
Dioxide Emissions x $50.00/ton).
How
to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint
Carbon
Emissions, Carbon Dioxide
Emissions, and Greenhouse
Gas Emissions can be reduced or completely eliminated with our
CHP Systems
or renewable
energy technologies, such as our Solar
Energy Systems - including our super high efficiency Solar
Cogeneration and Solar
Trigeneration energy systems. Brown buildings can be upgraded in to
green buildings and "Net
Zero Energy Buildings" through the products and services that we
offer.
Qualified
commercial, government, industrial and municipal clients can affordably have one
of our Solar Cogeneration and Solar
Trigeneration energy systems installed, with ZERO up-front costs, with our Power
Purchase Agreement. Call/email us to learn more and find out
if your business qualifies.
____________________________________________________
Greenhouse Gas
Emissions
Linked to
the Loss of Polar Bears
Photo courtesy of Alaska Image Library. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service
____________________________________________________
The
Advantages of Cogeneration
and Trigeneration
Monty Goodell, MBA
Chairman
Renewable Energy Institute
Owners
of commercial buildings and commercial businesses are increasingly seeking ways
to use energy more efficiently. This is a direct result of dramatically
increasing electric rates, decreased power reliability (blackouts, brownouts,
rolling blackouts, and other power interruptions), as well as competitive and
economic pressures to cut expenses, increase air quality, and reduce emissions
of air pollutants and greenhouse
gas emissions. The Kyoto
Protocol, while not ratified in the United States, continues to be a
major driver in much of the rest of the world. In the United States, "EcoGeneration"
is becoming a preferred method to produce a company’s or facility’s power
and energy requirements.
EcoGeneration
defines the optimization of economic and ecological benefits in the power
generation process. EcoGeneration
produces huge savings for our environment through the reduction, or even
elimination, of pollution associated with power and energy production.
Additionally, EcoGeneration
appeals to our customers’ economic bottom line by providing them with
significant fuel and electrical savings.
Energy
technologies that fall under the EcoGeneration
category include: wind, solar, geothermal
power plants, hydrogen
fuel, hydrogen
fuel cells, soybean (and other crude
vegetable oil based) B100
Bio diesel fuels, biomethane,
synthesis gas,
E100 Ethanol,
ocean/tidal power, waste
to energy, waste
to fuel and waste
to watts, combined cycle, district energy, cogeneration,
trigeneration,
and even quadgeneration
power plants. And without a doubt, one of the greenest EcoGeneration
solutions is "waste
heat recovery."
There
are two major EcoGeneration
initiatives and technologies that we will discuss in this article — cogeneration
and the newer technology, trigeneration.
Trigeneration
is one of the most attractive options, and is even more efficient and
economically rewarding than its cousin, cogeneration,
as it is a more comprehensive technology in that trigeneration includes cooling,
as well as heat and power. With a natural gas, biomethane,
B100 Biodiesel,
or synthesis gas
fuel supply, customers can have the option of going off the electric grid
entirely. Best of all, customers with waste streams such as a city's wastewater
treatment system or a landfill, can integrate "waste
to energy," "waste
to fuel" and other "methane
recovery" technologies such as anaerobic
digesters, landfill
gas to energy, to
generate essentially free biomethane.
And another technology, called
"biomass
gasification," can use other waste streams
such as the sewage
sludge from publicly
owned treatment works (POTWs) also referred to
as "wastewater
treatment plants" (WWTP) and generate
essentially-free synthesis
gas, to fuel the cogeneration
power plant at the POTW. Another huge savings for a city comes into play here as
sewage sludge
is a hazardous waste, and requires special handling
and disposal at permitted facilities that can handle/dispose of the POTW's sewage
sludge - costing anywhere from
$50.00/ton to well over $100/ton, depending on location. By using the waste
to fuel technology of
biomass
gasification - the city reduces its'
liabilities as well as expenses of "wasting" the sewage
sludge, and using it to fuel the cogeneration
power plant at the POTW.
Cogeneration,
also known as combined
heat and power (CHP), is the simultaneous production of electricity
and useful heat, usually in the form of either hot water or steam, from one
primary fuel, such as natural gas. While not necessarily defined correctly,
cogeneration has also been referred to as district energy, total energy,
combined cycle, CHP and simply cogen.
Cogeneration
has been mostly a technology used in the utilities and industrial marketplace.
Trigeneration,
as the name implies, refers to three energies, and is defined as the
simultaneous production of heat and power, just like cogeneration,
except trigeneration
takes cogeneration one step further by also producing chilled water for air
conditioning or process use with the addition of absorption or adsorption
chillers. Trigeneration, also referred to as CHCP (combined heating, cooling and
power), BCHP (building cooling, heating and power) and integrated energy
systems, permits even greater operational flexibility at businesses with demand
for energy in the form of heating and cooling. Just as a cogeneration power
plant captures and makes use of the waste heat, absorption or adsorption
chillers capture the waste (or rejected) heat and produce chilled water.
Trigeneration
systems are found in commercial applications typically where there is a need for
air conditioning or chilled water by the customer.
When
a trigeneration
power system is installed on-site, that is, where the electrical and thermal
energy is needed by the customer so that the electrical energy does not have to
be transported hundreds of miles away, and the thermal energy is fully utilized,
system efficiencies can reach and surpass 90 percent.
How
Trigeneration
Works: The Trigeneration Process
When compared to "central
power plants," trigeneration
energy systems;
-
are
about 300% more efficient
-
represent
a far superior investment
-
use
far less fuel for the same power and energy delivered
-
results
in a significant "emissions
abatement" solution that no other energy technology can
rival
-
when
using a renewable fuel such as biomethane,
B100 Biodiesel,
E100 Ethanol
(produced from sugar cane or sugar beets, etc. and not from corn) or synthesis
gas, is the most environmentally-friendly and sustainable energy
and power solutions available
Because
of this, customer's with trigeneration
energy systems generate far fewer, and nearly negligible amounts of pollution
than if the customer received their electricity from the electric utility
company using central
power plants - as
well as natural gas from the gas company for fueling their water heaters
and boilers.
Trigeneration's
superior efficiencies surpass even the latest state-of-the-art combined
cycle cogeneration power plants by up to 50 percent. Coupled with a
four-pipe system, hot water/steam and chilled water can be produced
simultaneously for circulation throughout the building or campus (which would be
referred to as a district energy system).
And
size is not an impediment, since trigeneration
systems can be installed, for example, in small commercial settings, such as
restaurants, hotels, schools, office buildings, and shopping centers, to large
applications such as petrochemical plants, refineries, and in a city's downtown
area, providing the energy requirements for multiple buildings. And it will
still provide system efficiencies of 90 percent.
History Of Cogeneration
Technology
Many people know that Thomas Edison built the first commercial power plant.
However, most people do not know that Edison's first commercial power plant
known as the "Pearl Street Station," built in 1882 in Lower
Manhattan, New York, was also a cogeneration
power plant!
Because
cogeneration
and trigeneration
continue to be the most efficient method of generating electrical and thermal
energy, in terms of energy output, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has
called for the doubling of electrical power generated from cogeneration
power plants — from the existing 46 GW (one gigawatt = 1,000 MW) to 92 GW by
the year 2010. When this goal is reached, cogeneration
will represent about 14 percent of the total U.S. generating capacity of
electricity. The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE)
estimates that an additional 95 GW of cogeneration capacity could be added
between 2010-2020, resulting in 29 percent of total U.S. electric
power generation being produced through cogeneration.
Europe is also dramatically increasing the number of cogeneration
power plants over the next decade.
And
the historical basis and success of cogeneration
has been the foundational basis for expanding the efficiencies of cogeneration
to trigeneration
and even quadgeneration, with each new increase in energies recovered
resulting in higher efficiencies and lower fuel/energy costs and fewer related
emissions.
President Bush's
National Energy Plan
In the United States, President George W. Bush's National Energy Plan
recognizes the efficiency of cogeneration
technologies — and it plays an important role in meeting national
energy objectives and maintaining comfort and safety in commercial and office
buildings. Released in May 2001, the president's National Energy Plan states:
A
family of technologies known as combined heat and power (CHP) can achieve
efficiencies of 80 percent or more. In addition to environmental benefits, cogeneration
projects offer efficiency and cost savings in a variety of settings, including
industrial boilers, energy systems, and small building scale applications. At
industrial facilities alone, there is potential for an additional 124,000 MW
of efficient power from gas-fired cogeneration, which could result in annual
emissions reductions of 614,000 tons of NOx emissions and 44 million tons of
carbon equivalent. Cogeneration is also one of a group of clean, highly
reliable, distributed energy technologies that reduce the amount of
electricity lost in transmission while eliminating the need to construct
expensive power lines to transmit power from large central power plants.
Since
the 1930s approximately two-thirds of all the fuel used to make electricity in
the U.S. is generally wasted by central power plants in the form of unused
thermal energy in the electrical generation process. While there have been
impressive energy efficiency gains in other sectors of the economy since the
oil price shocks of the 1970s, the average efficiency of power generation in
this country has remained around 27 to 35 percent for nearly 70 years. The use
of cogeneration and trigeneration can significantly improve that efficiency.
Pollution
Associated With Inefficient Power Plants
Currently, power plants in the U.S. have been cited for producing two-thirds
of its annual sulphur dioxide emissions, one-quarter of the nitrogen
oxides emissions, one-third of mercury
emissions, and one-third of carbon
dioxide emissions. These resulting pollutants produce serious
environmental and health consequences, including:
-
Increased
sick days in areas with high urban smog levels.
-
Lung
problems in the young and old, including increased rates of asthma and
chronic bronchitis.
-
Global
climate change.
-
Urban
haze and smog.
-
Acid
rain.
-
Acidification
of lakes, streams, rivers, and oceans.
-
Dead
and dying lakes, stream, rivers, and wildlife in and near these areas.
"Curing"
the problems associated with inefficient electrical power generation begins with
pollution prevention. The choices are clear — we must stop wasting energy and
start increasing the efficiency of power generation facilities. Instead of
building inefficient, wasteful, pollution-generating central power plants owned
by utility companies, where the thermal energy is wasted, we need to start
building efficient, on-site power plants where the heat energy can be utilized.
These on-site cogeneration,
trigeneration,
and even quadgeneration
power and energy systems are also referred to as "distributed
generation" or "decentralized
energy" technologies. They can be installed easily and
affordably, and they operate economically throughout their life cycle.
The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) understands that resolving these
problems must start with pollution prevention, which equates to using fewer
energy resources to produce goods and services. The National Energy Plan
includes four specific recommendations to promote CHP, three of which were
directed to EPA for action:
-
Promotion
of CHP through flexible environmental permitting.
-
Issuing
of guidelines to encourage development of highly efficient and low-emissions
CHP.
-
Promotion
of the use of CHP at abandoned brownfield industrial and commercial sites.
As
a follow-up to those recommendations, EPA joined with 18 Fortune 500 companies,
city and state governments, and nonprofit organizations in February 2002 in
Washington, DC, to announce the EPA Combined Heat and Power Partnership (CHPP).
The CHPP aims to advance CHP as a more efficient, clean, and reliable
alternative to conventional electricity generation. This initiative now boasts
nearly 50 partners, including state and local regulators, end users, project
developers, and equipment suppliers.
Clean
On-Site Power For Commercial And Industrial Customers
Decentralized
energy systems are smaller and more efficient power plants where
the power and thermal energy is actually needed. These on-site power systems
are also called "inside the fence" power systems and are designed
and engineered to maximize the customer's power and energy requirements.
The
DOE’s Energy Information Administration (EIA) recently sponsored a study to
estimate the potential of cogeneration
installations in the U.S. According to their study, there are 1,431,805
buildings in the United States that are suitable for on-site cogeneration
power systems (most of these are actually better suited for trigeneration)
requiring a capacity of 77,281 MW. At an average of $1 million per MW, this
translates into a $77,281,000,000 market opportunity. That's over $77 billion
in the U.S. alone. Trigeneration
would be an even greater market opportunity as this study focused on
applications where thermal energy load was in the form of steam or hot water,
and does not take into consideration use of thermal technologies, such as
absorption/adsorption chillers or desiccant dehumidification, as part of the
potential for the building's thermal load.
When
absorption
chillers or adsorption
chillers are added to a cogeneration
system, it is now referred to as a trigeneration
system. Therefore, the total market potential in the study could be
significantly higher than the 77,281 MW when considering the opportunity for trigeneration
applications. The study also estimates the total existing capacity of cogeneration
installations in the U.S. to be only about 4,930 MW, and that over 70 percent
of the existing facilities are under 1 MW and are powered by small
reciprocating engines.
Even
quadgeneration is a possibility, taking trigeneration
one further step, producing four energies from one process. By extracting
most, if not all, of the available heat from the power/energy generation
process, end users obtain the most efficient, optimized energy system. But the
efficiency gains are wasted if the recovered waste heat is not put to work or
the existing boilers or water heaters displaced, reduced, or eliminate
entirely. This is why it is absolutely critical that a thorough and complete
feasibility study is done to determine a properly sized on-site energy system,
and that conventional systems are either eliminated, compensated for, or
integrated into the new energy system.
It
should go without saying, but if the facility that installs a trigeneration
system does not replace or reduce other systems, there can be a net loss of
efficiency. If the facility does not offset the net efficiency gains of the
new trigeneration
system by reducing, displacing, or eliminating the existing water
heaters/boilers load, then the facility will not have an optimized
installation and therefore will not profit to the extent it could have had the
feasibility and design studies been properly conducted.
Trigeneration
Takes Lead Over Cogeneration Due To Superior Efficiency
and When Cooling/Air-Conditioning is Required
A trigeneration
system consists of a cogeneration
plant, and either absorption
chillers or adsorption
chillers that produce chilled water by making use of some of the
waste heat recovered from the cogeneration
power plant.
Schematic
presentation of a gas turbine-based trigeneration
facility.
While
cooling can be provided by electric-driven compression chillers, low quality
heat (i.e., low temperature, low pressure) that is not used by the cogeneration
power plant can be used to drive either the absorption
chillers or adsorption
chillers so that the overall primary energy consumption is reduced.
Trigeneration
power plants with absorption and/or adsorption chillers have gained acceptance
due to their capability of not only integrating with cogeneration systems but
also because they can operate with industrial waste heat streams that can be
fairly substantial. The benefits of power generation with
cooling/air-conditioning with either absorption
chillers or adsorption
chillers can be realized through the
following example that compares it with a power generation system with
conventional electric-driven compression systems.
Assume
in this example a factory needs 1 MW of electricity and 500 refrigeration tons
(RT). (Defintion: A refrigeration ton or RT is defined as the transfer of heat
at the rate of 3.52 kW, which is roughly the rate of cooling obtained by
melting ice at the rate of one ton per day.)
Let
us first consider the gas turbine that generates electricity required for the
processes as well as the conventional electric-driven compression chiller.
With an electricity demand of 0.65 kW/RT, the compression chiller needs 325 kW
of electricity to obtain 500 RT of cooling. Therefore, a total of 1,325 kW of
electricity must be provided to this factory. If the gas turbine has an
efficiency of 30 percent, primary energy consumption would be 4,417 kW.
However,
a trigeneration
system with either absorption
chillers or adsorption
chillers can provide the same energy service (power and cooling) by
consuming only 3,333 kW of primary energy.
In
this example, the trigeneration
power plant saves about 24.54 percent of the primary energy needed compared to
the cogeneration
power plant with electric-driven compression chillers. Since many industries
and commercial buildings can use combined power and heating/cooling, trigeneration
systems have a high potential for industrial and commercial applications. (The
above example is courtesy of ASHRAE.)
Trigeneration,
when compared to combined-cycle cogeneration, can be up to 50 percent more
efficient, further reducing operating costs, fuel expenses, and environmental
pollutants.
Trigeneration
systems for commercial buildings are very profitable investments for building
owners. A new trigeneration
system can pay for itself in as little as two years, depending on local
electric rates, natural gas (or other fuel) costs, and the load profile of the
building. Trigeneration
systems help not only the building owner, but also benefit society in a number
of ways, including:
-
Increased
power reliability,
-
Reduced
power requirements on the electric grid; and
-
Reduced
dependence on foreign oil.
The
on-site trigeneration
system can be economically attractive for many types of buildings, including,
but not limited to, the following:
-
Airports
-
Casinos
-
Central
Plants
-
Colleges
& Universities
-
Dairies
-
Data Centers
-
District Heating & Cooling plants
-
Food Processing Plants
-
Golf/Country
Clubs
-
Government
Buildings and Facilities
-
Grocery Stores
-
Hospitals
-
Hotels
-
Manufacturing
Plants
-
Military
Bases
-
Nursing Homes
-
Office
Buildings / Campuses
-
Radio Stations
-
Refrigerated
Warehouses
-
Resorts
-
Restaurants
-
Schools
-
Server
Farms
-
Shopping
centers
-
Supermarkets
-
Television
Stations
-
Theatres
Facilities
with trigeneration
systems use them to produce their own electricity, and use the unused excess
(waste) heat for water heating, space heating, air conditioning, process steam,
and other thermal needs.
Improved
Power Reliability
Economic losses due to power outages in the U.S. have cost American businesses
billions of dollars. The following table shows the economic impact of power
outages on some industries.
Economic
impact of power outages
As
we all know, power outages and rolling blackouts are occurring more frequently
than ever before. And they are not happening only in California; many other
states have experienced similar problems. These problems primarily occur when
demand for power exceeds its supply, for example, on hot days when power
demand for cooling systems increases significantly. Similar situations occur
on very cold days when demand for heating becomes very high. There may also be
local areas that are more prone to power outages because the demand for power
exceeds the ability of the local distribution line to provide the energy.
Other times, weather-related storms knock down power lines and substation
transformers.
Cogeneration
and trigeneration
systems give commercial and industrial end users their own reliable power
supply to keep equipment and facilities operating. Plus, they help reduce the
load on the power grid and local area lines and, thus, help improve the local
community’s power reliability.
Improved
Indoor Environments
Also of increasing interest is the issue of indoor air quality. In order to
prevent the growth of mold, mildew, and bacteria, it is important to keep
humidity in the indoor air to below 60 percent. Cogeneration
and trigeneration
systems for buildings can help improve indoor air quality by supporting the
use of a desiccant dehumidification system to dry the air. Desiccant systems
use a material that directly removes moisture from the air, then use heat,
such as that provided by the exhaust gases of the cogeneration/trigeneration
equipment, to regenerate the desiccant. This provides a very energy efficient
and cost effective method of dehumidifying indoor air, rather that using an
air conditioner to "over cool" the air to remove humidity.
Summary:
Advantages Of On-Site Cogeneration
And Trigeneration
Cogeneration
and trigeneration
are accepted as the most energy-efficient means of producing electricity and now
produce almost 17 percent of the U.S.' electricity and 15% of electricity
globally.
-
saves
customers up to 50 percent on their energy expenses.
-
provides
even greater savings to our environment through significantly reduced
emissions associated with power plants.
-
backed
by environmental organizations such as the Sierra Club and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
-
The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is promoting the use of more
electricity to be produced through cogeneration power plants. The EPA
recently formed the CHP/Cogeneration Partnership to foster more cogeneration
power plants to meet our nation's electricity demand.
-
Cogeneration
is a proven technology that has been around for over 100 years. The world's
first power plant designed and built by Thomas Edison in 1882 was a cogeneration
plant. Trigeneration
just takes cogeneration
one step further.
-
Two-thirds
of the fuel used to make electricity today in the United States is wasted.
While there have been impressive energy efficiency gains in other sectors of
the economy since the oil price shocks of the 1970s, the average efficiency
of power generation in the United States has stagnated at around 33 percent
since 1960. Cogeneration
and trigeneration
offer significant efficiency improvements.
-
A
new cogeneration
or trigeneration
power plant may pay for itself in as little as 2-3 years.
-
It
is important to note that increasing the use of cogeneration
and trigeneration
systems is, and has been, one of the best technologies available for
reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and other pollutants created by the typical power
plant as well as a means for conserving fuel and reducing our reliance on
foreign oil.
-
The
Kyoto Protocol,
while not being ratified here in the United States, is moving ahead with
ratification throughout the rest of the world. Countries throughout much of
Europe and Asia view cogeneration
and trigeneration
as the best energy technologies to meet the stringent emissions requirements
of the Kyoto
Protocol.
-
Primary
fuels commonly used in cogeneration
and trigeneration
include natural gas, oil, diesel fuel, propane, coal, wood, wood-waste, and
bio-mass. These "primary" fuels are used to make electricity that
is a "secondary" energy. This is why electricity, when compared on
a Btu to Btu basis, is typically three to four times more expensive than
primary fuels such natural gas.
A
typical cogeneration
power plant consists of an engine, steam turbine, or combustion turbine that
drives an electrical generator. A waste heat exchanger recovers waste heat
from the engine and/or exhaust gas to produce hot water or steam for a
building. In trigeneration
power plants, an absorption or adsorption chiller is added to a cogeneration
system to also utilize the waste heat to make chilled water for air
conditioning.
Cogeneration
produces a given amount of electric power and heat with 20 to 30 percent
less fuel than it takes to produce the electricity and heat separately. Trigeneration
produces chilled water in addition to electric power and heat with
approximately 50 percent less fuel than it takes to produce electricity,
heat, and chilled water separately.
____________________________________________________
What is "Decentralized Energy"?
Decentralized
Energy
is the opposite of "centralized energy."
Decentralized
Energy
energy generates the power and energy that a residential, commercial or
industrial customer needs, onsite. Examples of decentralized energy production
are solar energy systems and
solar
trigeneration energy systems.
Today's
electric utility industry was "born" in the 1930's, when fossil fuel
prices were cheap, and the cost of wheeling the electricity via transmission
power lines, was also cheap. "Central" power plants could be
located hundreds of miles from the load centers, or cities, where the
electricity was needed. These extreme inefficiencies and cheap fossil fuel
prices have added a considerable economic and environmental burden to the
consumers and the planet.
Centralized
energy is found in the form of electric utility companies that generate power
from "central" power plants. Central power plants are highly
inefficient, averaging only 33% net system efficiency. This means that the
power coming to your home or business - including the line losses and
transmission inefficiencies of moving the power - has lost 75% to as much as 80%
energy it started with at the "central" power plant. These
losses and inefficiencies translate into significantly increased energy expenses
by the residential and commercial consumers.
Decentralized Energy
is the Best Way to Generate Clean and Green Energy!
How
we make and distribute electricity is changing!
The
electric power
generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric
"grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the
19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very
expensive and
“dumb.”
The "old" way of generating and distributing
energy resembles this slide:
The electric grid of the 21st century (see slide below)
will be
Decentralized, Smart, Efficient and provide "carbon
free energy" and “pollution
free power” to customers who remain on the
electric grid. The electric grid of the future will be comprised of
both Onsite Power
Generation plants and "utility
scale power plants" that are fueled/powered with Biomass
Gasification, Biomethane, Concentrating
Solar Power, B100 Biodiesel, Distributed
PV, EcoGeneration Systems, Geothermal
Power Plants, Synthesis
Gas, Rooftop PV, Solar
Cogeneration, Solar Energy
Systems, Solar Power Parks, Solar
Trigeneration and Wind Power
Generation - located at Residential, Commercial, Industrial
and City/Municipal Locations.
Some customers will choose to
dis-connect from the
grid entirely.
(Electric grid represented by the small light blue circles in the slide below.)
The
transmission grid will be upgraded to a "Unified
Smart Grid" with green electrons now being wheeled via "High
Voltage Direct Current."
Typical
"central" power plants and the electric utility companies
that own them will either be shut-down, closed or go out of business due
to one or more of the following: failed business model, inordinate
expenses related to central power plants that are inefficient, excessive
pollution/emissions, high costs, continued reliance on the use of fossil
fuels to generate energy, and the failure to provide efficient, carbon
free energy and pollution free
power.
Carbon
free energy
and pollution free
power reduces our dependence on foreign oil and makes us Energy
Independent while reducing and eliminating Greenhouse
Gas Emissions.
* Some of the above information from the Department
of Energy website with permission.
______________________________________________________
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